“Elimination (urination and defecation) is one of the fundamental biological activities of any species” (Wagner et al 2014). Maslow's(1943) hierarchy of needs, places elimination as a basic physiological need and a requirement for survival . Therefore a dog has a drive to urinate. However there is a whole lot going on in the dispersal behaviour of urine over and above the simple elimination of waste.
New born puppies urination depends on an exteroceptive somato- bladder reflex mechanism that is triggered when the mother licks the genital or perineal regional of the pup, this reflex diminishes as voluntary neural pathways develop between 7-12 weeks old ((animals with spinal injuries can be manipulated to urinate through this exteroceptive- somato reflex mechanism) (Fowler 2008). So it should be no surprise when a puppy under 3 months old eliminates shortly after someone picks them up because they have accidently stimulated this reflex.
Mature bladder function can be represented as a cycle, made up by a series of phases: Filling; desire to void; postponement; initiation of sphincter relaxation; and bladder contraction; and maintenance of both these until the bladder is empty/filling. To make use of the postponement phase three abilities are required:
to appreciate what is an acceptable micturition site;
to be able to get there;
and to adopt a micturition posture.
Each phase and each requirement in the postponement phase has its own disorders which may occur alone or in various combinations (Yeates 1974).
The desire to micturate and the symptom of urgency is produced by an increase in tension in the bladder wall, attenuated by bladder contractions. The contraction waves and resulting sensations are easily affected in either direction by cortical activities. Micturition is normally initiated by voluntary removal of its inhibition, then urination results from inhibition of the tone of the striated muscles in the pelvic floor. Therefore maturation of the control of micturition consists of reduction of the micturition reflex; development of consciousness bladder distension; and the development of conscious ability to postpone or to initiate micturition as required (Yeates 1974).
So it is important to think about the developmental stage of the dog understand that there is individual variation in bladder control age, and also to take note that there is variation in bladder size even between dogs of same breed and same age( Mantis 2008).
Over the last century scientists have studied elimination behaviour of various species including domestic dogs. Ross (1950) studied elimination behaviour of dogs under the specific conditions living conditions in laboratory colonies, where dogs existed in living-eating- sleeping quarters. It was identified that adult dogs preferred to eliminate away from the sleeping and eating areas, and selected a restricted area, and eliminated in that particular area daily. If house broken, they
preferred to eliminate outside, despite the requirement for more effort to be made to go outside. If dogs were disturbed by strange noises or by continued presence of observer the restricted behaviour of elimination was not continued.
Preferred elimination away from bed and food areas appears to be normal species specific behaviour which is not just confined to domestic dogs, other animals also have preferred locations away from food and bed area (Jenson 2002).
Puppies ceased eliminating in bed area around five weeks old, but do not develop selection and restricted elimination behaviour for another few weeks (Ross 1950; Wagner et al 2014). This is the time where voluntary neural pathways are being developed and where elimination behaviour begins to be learnt.
Identifying the site of elimination might well identify the reasons for inappropriate elimination, if the dog is eliminating in one area it is likely his preferred restricted site a sign that house training might have gone wrong, the dog has learnt indoor location and substrate preference (Beaver 2009). However Ross 1950 and Wagner et al 2014 identified that if a dog eliminates in one area the likely hood of another dog or the same dog eliminating in that area is high. So the elimination might have started as an accident, but if the smell is still in that area the dog is more likely to eliminate in that area again and as a result learns his preferred elimination site.
Often puppy owners use puppy pads inside the house, the pup learns to urinate on the puppy pads. Owners remove puppy pads without any further training, and the dog eliminates on the carpet instead because he has learnt that he can urinate in the house, and the
carpet feels just the same as a puppy pad to the dog.
If the dog has no preferred site and is urinating here there and anywhere the dog has either not developed preferred elimination areas, or is anxious or is continuously being disturbed by someone or something.
Anxiety can suppress bladder contraction waves or conversely exaggerate bladder contraction waves (Yeates 1974).
Weber (1939) suggested that providing a restricted crate with no more room than to lie down would ensure that the dog would inhibit defecation and urination in the cramped conditions, and many people still use this method of house training today. However leaving a dog in his crate for long periods without providing the chance to eliminate in appropriate areas, results in the overriding drive to urinate which is counterproductive because the dog learns that he has no choice but to
urinate in his crate area.
Physiological reasons (this list is not exhaustive):
The dog is in pain
Obesity is a common risk factor for incontinence in dogs.
Neutering is also one of the primary risk factors for incontinence, however, most animals do not develop any medical disorders as a result of neutering; complications are uncommon. If there is incontinence related to neutering, it will generally be temporary, as the dog learns to control its urinary muscles again during the recovery process (De Bleser 2011; Beauvais 2012) .
Disruption of the nerves around the bladder
Lesions in the brain
Damage to dogs nerves or spinal cord that innervate the bladder, trauma or neoplasia
Overactive bladder syndrome
Urinary tract infections
Chronic inflammatory disease
Pressure on the bladder caused by a mass
Underdevelopment of the bladder or other birth defects
Decreased sphincter control often seen in older females
This list as stated is not exhaustive but it shows how important it is to ensure that there is not a physiological reason for inappropriate elimination (Maddison et al 2008).
Medical reasons (the list is not exhaustive)
Diabetes, Cushings disease, Addisons disease, Hyperthyoidism, Hypercalcemia, Hypokalemia, Liver disease, generally due to
increased thirst and increased urine output ( Maddison et al 2008).
Kidney failure (maddison et al 2008)
ureta stones (Dalmations have a genetic mutation which interferes in uric acid transportation resulting in an increased risk of urate
stones) (Fascetti et al 2012),
Cancer within the urogenital system (Maddison et al 2008).
Epilepsy (Maddison et al 2008; Overall 2013).
Canine cognitive dysfunction (Osella et al 2007).
Pharmacological causes:
Steroids generally cause increase in thirst and consequently urination (Maddison et al 2008)
Cholinergic drugs like acetylcholine, produce an urgent desire to void, and is associated with a bladder contraction wave. And anti cholinergic drugs decrease the desire to void (Maddison et al 2008, Yeates 1974). Diuretics causes increase in urination due to their effect of ridding the body of excess water (Maddison et al 2008).
Anticonvulsants usually due to increase in thirst resulting in increase in urination, however Anti convulsants can cause overflow urination, due to their depressive effects on the nervous system, dogs might not feel that their bladder is full and become incontinient ( Maddison et al 2008)
Antihistamines and antipsychotics which contain phenothiazine can cause increase in thirst and consequently increase in urination (Maddison et al 2008)
As a result of choosing just a few pharmacological products it shows how important it is to know what medications or over the counter supplements a dog is taking to identify if that is a likely candidate of causing inappropriate elimination.
If the dog is fearful of being outside he could hold onto his urine and only eliminate where he feels safe the house being his safe place to urinate.
If the dog is excited or absorbed in investigating his outside environment he might forget to eliminate outside, due to his other drives being more important at the time, then when the dog comes in to the house he has a full bladder and is then driven to urinate to reduce his discomfort.
If the dog is excited on homecomings he can urinate in the house this is a result of the activation of the entire autonomic nervous system in co- release resulting in the dog eliminating on greetings the same occurs in submissive weeing (Jenson 2002).
Male dogs are more likely to cock their legs on upright surfaces, particularly if, they are new items being brought in to the house hold. For some dogs this is way of making it smell like it belongs here, for other dogs, novel items in the household are a subject of anxiety and are likely to cause an increase in inappropriate elimination.
As highlighted by Ross (1950) any disturbances in their environment can cause the dog not to eliminate in their preferred area, so a house trained dog who starts to eliminate in the house, a likely candidate is a change in their environment, whether that is a new neighbour, new house, new resident dog or other pet, new baby, change in work schedules, change in feeding and exercise routines, building renovations, decorating, new carpets etc.
Dogs with separation anxiety have an increase in likelihood of eliminating when owners are absent.
Some dogs do not like eliminating in front of owners, and find it difficult to urinate whilst on lead. Occasionally this is caused by owners punishing the dog for urinating or defacating inappropriately, however for other dogs they have a bashful bladder in much the same way as humans suffer from Paruresis (unable to urinate in public) and as a result they come in from being outside and go under the coffee table and urinate. Dogs need to feel safe to eliminate whether that it is urine or
faeces. If they do not feel safe outside they are likely to eliminate where they feels safe and that being indoors.
To sum it all up, individual dogs develop at different rates, some dogs have small bladders some have a larger bladders. Some learn quickly and learn appropriate preferential substrate with little guidance, some dogs need me guidance than others. Some dogs are more anxious than others, some dogs are more busy than others. You hear that pups are housetrained at 8 weeks old, this is a bit farfetched, what it actually means is that there has been good husbandry and the pup has been guided to the appropriate elimination site at the right time. My personal opinion is that dogs are not reliably house trained until they are at least a year old, and even then if the dog has to rely on owners for his elimination needs, without good husbandry the dog can eliminate anywhere.
References
Beaver, B (2009) Canine Behavior: Insights and Answers . 2nd edition. Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Beauvais W, Cardwell J M, Brodbelt D C (2012). The effect of neutering on the risk of urinary incontinence in bitches – a systematic review, Journal of Small Animal Practice 53: 198-204.
De Bleser B, Brodbelt D C, Gregory N G, Martinez T A (2011). The association between acquired urinary sphincter mechanism incompetence in bitches and early spaying: a case-control study, The Veterinary Journal 187: 42-47.
Fowler, C. Griffiths, D. de Groat, W. (2008) The neural control of micturition Nature Reviews: Neuroscience 2008 June; 9(6): 453–466
Jenson,P. (2002) The Ethology Of Domestic Animals CABI publishing Oxon: UK. New york: USA
Maddison, J. Page,S. Church, D. (2008) Small animal clinical pharmocology. 2nd edition. Saunders elsevier: USA.
Mantis, P. (2008) Ultrasonography of the Urinary and Genital System of the Dog and Cat. 2nd International Symposium of Veterinary Surgery and 7th Iranian Symposium of Veterinary Surgery, Anesthesia and Radiology, Kerman, Iran, 21-24 April, 2008. Iranian Journal Of Veterinary Surgery 2008 No. Supplement 2 pp. 63-71
Maslow, A. (1943) A Theory Of Human Motivation Psychological Review Vol :50 no : 4 pp 370-396.
Osella,M. Re,G. Odore,R. Girardi,C. Badino,P. Barbero,R. Bergamasco,L. (2007) Canine cognitive dysfunction syndrome: Prevalence, clinical signs and treatment with a neuroprotective nutraceutical Applied Animal Behaviour Science Volume 105, Issue 4, July 2007, Pages 297–310
Overall, K. (2013) Manual of clinical behavioural medicine for dogs and cats. Mosby and imprint of Elsevier Inc: Canada.
Ross, S. (1950) Some Observations on the Lair Dwelling Behavior of dogs. Behaviour, Vol. 2, No. 3 (1950), pp. 144-162
Wagner, D. Newbury, S. Kass, P. Hurley,K. (2014) Elimination Behavior of Shelter Dogs Housed in Double Compartment
Yeates WK. (1974) Neurophysiology of the bladder. Paraplegia ; 12: 73–82
Wednesday, 29 April 2015
Monday, 12 January 2015
Inconsistency in ownership style and behavioural problems in dogs.
A dog that receives contradictory and paradoxical information can be the root to behavioural disorders of a dog. What this means is two opposite messages are emitted for the exact same piece of information. The double message is a source of confusion and leads to disqualification of all the information, or a part of it, or the response by its receiver (Bateson 1971;1987).
For instance the most common communication problem that I come across is that the dog is rewarded or punished alternatively for recall, given a treat or alternatively shouted at. This alternating double message teaches the dog not to come when called, because he has no idea what to expect when he comes back. The owner thinks that punishing him for the delay in recall means that he will come back immediately when called the next time. However when the dog comes back from his adventures, those adventures are forgotten, he is attending to owner so the dog believes he is being punished for returning.
Human communication involves verbal, vocal, postural, motor and contextual levels, successful communication ensures that these levels are congruent (Gross et al 2004). If you call a dog in a soft voice, but your posture is threatening there is no congruence, this will result in a dog becoming anxious, because there is no consistency in the pattern of human behaviour.
Another scenario of inconsistency I often come across is between a couple and their dog. One owner is permissive the other a disciplinarian. Although both owners might be consistent in the way they treat the dog independently it becomes incongruent for the dog when one minute he is allowed to do something and the next he is being punished for it. For example: allowed to get on the sofa one minute by one owner, shouted at to get down by the other. Therefore punishment is more likely to be unpredictable for the dog. The stress response to an aversive event is influenced by its predictability and controllability (Arhant et al 2010; Gross et al 2004). There is a chance the dog might learn not to get on the sofa in the presence of the disciplinarian, but also become anxious in the absence of the disciplinarian, because the dog is confused.
References
Arhant, C. Bubna-Littitz,H. Bartels,A. Futschik, A. Troxler, J (2010) Behaviour of smaller and larger dogs: Effects of training methods, inconsistency of owner behaviour and level of engagement in activities with the dog. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 133 (2010) 131-142
Bateson G.(1971;1987) Steps To An Ecology Of Mind. Collected Essays In Anthropology,Psychiatry, Evolution, And Epistemology. Jason Aronson Inc.Northvale, New Jersey London
Gross,R. McIlveen, R. (2004) Psychology A new introduction. Holder and StroughtonEducational.:UK.
Sunday, 11 January 2015
How can chewing help with learning and behavioural problems?
Mastication involves rhythmic and voluntary movements of lower jaw by the masticatory muscles. Tooth loss and weakness of masticatory muscles causes impairment of masticatory function and chewing disability (Teixeira et al 2014).
Animal experiments have shown that tooth loss or long-term soft-diet feeding causes a decrease in learning and memory ability (Wanabe et al 2002) Another study also revealed that soft-diet feeding after a weaning period reduces synaptic formation in the cerebral cortex and impairs the ability of spatial learning in the adulthood hypothalamus ( Onozuka et al 2002; Teixeira et al 2014). ). Biting during restraint exposure suppresses stress-induced catecholamine concentrations and therefore responses are reduced. This implies that masticatory activity induced a positive anti-stress effect in animals (cited in Frota de Almedia. Et al 2012). Therefore if a dog has been exposed to uncontrollable stressors, it might be beneficial to give the dog something to chew on.
Mastication is regulated by a neural population in the brainstem and a neural network including several brain regions. Chewing has been shown to be associated with increased cerebral blood flow, and several studies have reported increased cerebral activity following gum chewing in humans. Thus, the beneficial effects of chewing on cerebral activity have been suggested, because chewing uses the same neural pathways as cognition so pathways are less likely to decay if chewing is maintained (Sasaki-Otomaru et al 2012; Onozuka et al 2002).
In epidemiological studies, oral function and status have been shown to be related to physical, mental, and social health. In particular, chewing ability has been shown to influence activities of daily living, cognitive status and quality of life (Frota de Alemdia et al 2012).
Therefore chewing is a fantastic way to ensure that the dogs jaw muscles are exercised regularly.
Chewing may have a relaxing effect for the dog aswell as the other benefits described above. Play is defined by the oxford dictionary(2014) “to engage in an activity for enjoyment and recreation rather than a serious or practical purpose” therefore the chewing of can be deemed play, solitary play, and for interacting with as demonstrated in the following video.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HCO4Hj5zbH8
A Kong is flexible dog toy which the dog can bite down animal experiments have shown this activity induced a positive anti-stress effect in animals (cited in Frota de Almedia. Et al 2012). Therefore if a dog has been exposed to uncontrollable stressors, it might be beneficial to give the dog a kong to carry with them, it seems to act as a dummy and can be reassuring to a dog.
References
Frota de Almedia. Et al (2012) Spatial memory decline after masticatory deprivation and aging is associated with alterd laminar distribution of CA1 astrocytes. BMC Neuroscience (2012) volume 13: no 23
Onozuka M, Watanabe K, Fujita M, Tonosaki K, Saito S. (2002) Evidence for involvement of glucocorticoid response in the hippocampal changes in aged molarless SAMP8 mical e. Behavioural Brain Research. 2002;131:125-129
Oxford dictionary (2014) Oxford Dictionary Of English .version 1.6 Anthony Lewis: Wordweb software.
Sasaki-Otomaru, A. Sakuma, Y Sato, C. (2011) Effect of Regular Gum Chewing on Levels of Anxiety, Mood, and Fatigue in Healthy Young Adults Clinical Practice & Epidemiology in Mental Health, 2011, Vol. 7, pp. 133-139.
Teixeira, F. Fernandes, L Noronha, P et al (2014) Masticatory Deficiency as a Risk Factor for Cognitive Dysfunction International Journal of Medical Sciences
2014; 11(2):209-214.
Wanabe Et al The molarless condition in aged SAMP8 mice attenuates hippocampal Fos induction linked to water maze performance Behavioural Brain Research 2002; 128: 19-25
Animal experiments have shown that tooth loss or long-term soft-diet feeding causes a decrease in learning and memory ability (Wanabe et al 2002) Another study also revealed that soft-diet feeding after a weaning period reduces synaptic formation in the cerebral cortex and impairs the ability of spatial learning in the adulthood hypothalamus ( Onozuka et al 2002; Teixeira et al 2014). ). Biting during restraint exposure suppresses stress-induced catecholamine concentrations and therefore responses are reduced. This implies that masticatory activity induced a positive anti-stress effect in animals (cited in Frota de Almedia. Et al 2012). Therefore if a dog has been exposed to uncontrollable stressors, it might be beneficial to give the dog something to chew on.
Mastication is regulated by a neural population in the brainstem and a neural network including several brain regions. Chewing has been shown to be associated with increased cerebral blood flow, and several studies have reported increased cerebral activity following gum chewing in humans. Thus, the beneficial effects of chewing on cerebral activity have been suggested, because chewing uses the same neural pathways as cognition so pathways are less likely to decay if chewing is maintained (Sasaki-Otomaru et al 2012; Onozuka et al 2002).
In epidemiological studies, oral function and status have been shown to be related to physical, mental, and social health. In particular, chewing ability has been shown to influence activities of daily living, cognitive status and quality of life (Frota de Alemdia et al 2012).
Therefore chewing is a fantastic way to ensure that the dogs jaw muscles are exercised regularly.
Chewing may have a relaxing effect for the dog aswell as the other benefits described above. Play is defined by the oxford dictionary(2014) “to engage in an activity for enjoyment and recreation rather than a serious or practical purpose” therefore the chewing of can be deemed play, solitary play, and for interacting with as demonstrated in the following video.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HCO4Hj5zbH8
A Kong is flexible dog toy which the dog can bite down animal experiments have shown this activity induced a positive anti-stress effect in animals (cited in Frota de Almedia. Et al 2012). Therefore if a dog has been exposed to uncontrollable stressors, it might be beneficial to give the dog a kong to carry with them, it seems to act as a dummy and can be reassuring to a dog.
References
Frota de Almedia. Et al (2012) Spatial memory decline after masticatory deprivation and aging is associated with alterd laminar distribution of CA1 astrocytes. BMC Neuroscience (2012) volume 13: no 23
Onozuka M, Watanabe K, Fujita M, Tonosaki K, Saito S. (2002) Evidence for involvement of glucocorticoid response in the hippocampal changes in aged molarless SAMP8 mical e. Behavioural Brain Research. 2002;131:125-129
Oxford dictionary (2014) Oxford Dictionary Of English .version 1.6 Anthony Lewis: Wordweb software.
Sasaki-Otomaru, A. Sakuma, Y Sato, C. (2011) Effect of Regular Gum Chewing on Levels of Anxiety, Mood, and Fatigue in Healthy Young Adults Clinical Practice & Epidemiology in Mental Health, 2011, Vol. 7, pp. 133-139.
Teixeira, F. Fernandes, L Noronha, P et al (2014) Masticatory Deficiency as a Risk Factor for Cognitive Dysfunction International Journal of Medical Sciences
2014; 11(2):209-214.
Wanabe Et al The molarless condition in aged SAMP8 mice attenuates hippocampal Fos induction linked to water maze performance Behavioural Brain Research 2002; 128: 19-25
Saturday, 3 January 2015
Separation Anxiety
The term Separation anxiety has its roots in the work of the ethologist Konrad Lorenz who studied instinctive behaviour particularly imprinting. which is how bond formation occurs between individuals and groups of mammalian species and birds. Konrad’s theory states that bonds are instinctive and adaptive in nature ( Gross 2004; Garcia 2005).
Bowlby a psychoanalyst, in the 1950’s was inspired by Konrad and applied ethological theory to human attachments. The key concepts of this theory was that;-
• innate behaviours are essentially the same in all members of a species.
• Fixed action patterns, which are the complex innate behaviours that promote species survival, for example: the attachment behaviours of infant and mother.
Sensitive periods which are specific periods where an animal is biologically ready to acquire a particular new behaviour (Bowlby 1983: Parthasarathy et al 2005: Davenport 1993 ;Gross Et al 2004; Garcia 2005).
Therefore attachment theory has a strong evolutionary base, although exploratory behaviour in young animals is necessary for them to learn about their physical and social world, wandering too far away from the mother would leave that infant vulnerable to predatory and conspecific attack (Gross et al 2004). Therefore it is of evolutionary benefit for the infant to seek the proximity of its mother when it is afraid, and behaviours such as crying; following; and clinging; facilitates gaining and maintaining proximity . Bowlby termed this behaviour as Separation Anxiety and was a normal reaction of an infant, to maintain close proximity with the attachment figure (Bowlby 1983).
Bowlby describes how the infant tries to withdraw or escape from a situation or object that they find alarming, and attempt to go towards or remain with some person or in some place that makes them feel secure. The first type of behaviour is commonly accompanied by a sense of fright or alarm; the second type of behaviour is, of course, what is termed as attachment behaviour. So long as the required proximity to the attachment-figure can be maintained, no unpleasant feeling is experienced. When, however, proximity cannot be maintained because either the figure is lost or some barrier intervenes, the consequent searching and striving are accompanied by a sense of discomfort, and the same is true when loss is threatened. In this discomfort of separation and at a threat of separation , separation anxiety is termed (Bowlby 1983).
Ainsworth (1978,2014) was further inspired and developed a way to test attachment styles through the ‘stranger situation’ and identified that the quality of attachment relationships between infants and caregivers is dependent, upon the degree to which caregivers serve as a secure base for infants. Further analysis, characterised caregivers’ ability to provide a secure base for their infants as emotional availability. Ainsworth described the emotionally available caregiver as promoting an atmosphere of ‘quiet supportiveness’ for autonomous play, thus encouraging infants’ exploration and also emphasised caregivers’ emotional availability as an important antecedent factor for infants’ attachment security. According to Ainsworth et al, the emotionally available caregiver is accessible and appropriately responsive as well as tuned in to the infant’s signals (Ainsworth et al (1978; Parthasarathy et al 2005; Davenport 1993 ;Gross Et al 2004; Garcia 2005).
Therefore Separation anxiety is not exclusive to dogs or even to veterinary medicine. It is a psychological term to describe the stress and anxiousness in an individual which is brought on by the leaving (perceived or imagined) of another individual (Davenport 1995; Gross et al 2004;Bowlby 1983: Bowlby 1980; Parthasarathy et al: Garcia 2005; Ainsworth et al 1978; Topal et al 1998; Hett 2008).
A more specific definition of separation anxiety requires ongoing attachment to the maternal or primary caregiver . In the case of a dog, separation anxiety is usually an anxiety brought on by separation from the primary caretaker. it is a normal developmental phase and it is necessary for survival. Separation anxiety disorder occurs later in development and interferes with normal activities (Landsberg et al 2013; Overall 2013).
What classifies as a "separation” varies greatly between dogs : some must have "their person" within their line of sight, other dogs are fine as long as the owner is within a comfortable distance (i.e. somewhere else in the house), and still others are fine until the owner leaves. Even finer distinctions would be dogs that are fine for a certain period of time after their owner leaves, but then start to show signs of anxiousness some time later ( Topal et al 1998; Parathasay 2006).
Just like the variance in what stresses out each individual, the signs of separation anxiety vary greatly as well, from pacing, to learnt helplessness, to barking and howling, incontinence, and destructive behaviour, just to name a few (0verall 2013; Landsburg et al 2013).
Separation anxiety in dogs was once thought to be a hyper-attachment to the owner. But studies have shown that dogs with separation anxiety and dogs without separation anxiety displayed same behaviours around owners, i.e. follow owner around the house (Mariti et al 2013; Horn et al 2013). Behaviour modification protocols for separation anxiety that recommend owners ignore their dogs and also the behaviours from the dog that are designed to promote social contact, is a harmful recommendation because it damages the human-animal bond and produces anxiety and frustration, because the dog is powerless to initiate social interaction, and the owner is prevented from doing so (Hett et al 2008; Parathasy et al 2006) In addition the hyper-attachment behaviour is more likely to be due to an insecure attachment to the owner. Ainsworth demonstrated in the ‘strange situation’ different forms of attachment. Secure attachments when the attachment figure was compassionate to the needs of the child; insecure attachments seen in children whose attachment figure was not responsive to the needs of the child, and ambivalent attachments, where children showed no attachment to the attachment figure, due to a caregiver being inconsistent in emotional and physical availability to the child. Many years ago it was once thought that children should be seen and not heard, that they need to learn to have a backbone, and responding to the childs needs immediately was deemed that the child would become too reliant on the caregivers.
Children brought up this way resulted in a child who cried more, explored less, and clung more to caregivers and were not easily reassured, than the children who had secure attachments to their caregivers (Ziv et al 2013).
The strange situation has been repeated with dogs and found the same findings secure attachments, insecure attachments as is avoidance and ambivalent attachments (Topal et al 1998; Hett et al 2008; Mariati et al 2013,Horn et al 2013).
Attachments are not just for caregivers, they can be for place, objects whatever makes mammals feel safe, usually attachments occur first with primary caregivers, which gives the individual the safety and security to explore their environment, when they become comfortable after exploration, the attachment to that place becomes another secure base. The BBC episodes Monkey planet aired on the 2nd April 2014 demonstrates a place as an attachment, the baby gibbon was too scared to leave the safety of the enclosure to go and investigate the big outside world, mum goes and reasures him, the infant comes out of the enclosure, Mum cuddles him again, and hay presto he is swinging from the trees free, the video clip below is not from that programme and does not demonstrate the cuddle but the calm reassurance from mum, giving the infant the confidence to begin his exploration of the outside world. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IT3aLsTxbnQ
Most researchers assume that the acceptance of human beings as conspecific alongside the mother-like and effective security-providing role of humans for distressed puppies are results of domestication. For 10,000 years, artificial selection in dogs favoured socialisation with humans as if they were conspecific. The genetic changes regarding a dog's capacity for conspecific recognition, might have played a key role in this process that resulted in a preference for humans. A dog's preparedness for forming a bond with humans, a bond that is rooted in the evolutionary past, would be a prerequisite for the development of attachment between a particular person (the owner) and the dog itself (Topal et al 2011).
Although the ability to form attachments is usually associated with an early sensitive period, Gasci et al (2001) demonstrated that in certain conditions a short responsive interaction with an unfamiliar human individual may result in attachment behaviour even in the case of dogs that are more than 1 year old. Gasci et al (2001) study in rescue centres show that dogs of low or restricted contact with humans may retain their ability to form new attachment relationships with humans. Probably the extreme separation from human social contact (i.e., shelter conditions) has a crucial role in this sensitisation process. In other words, dogs living in poor social conditions become more responsive to humans, which results in a remarkable readiness to form attachment relationships. It should be noted that in the case of rhesus monkeys, a similar effect has been shown because most abnormally socialised monkeys could be rehabilitated to a certain extent by appropriate exposure to conspecific groups and individuals (Harlow et al1971).
Panskepp (2004) looks at the neurocircuitry and neurochemistry of social bonds, and is assumed that the arousal of the panic system is one of the many driving forces that guide the construction of social bonds and identifies that the attachments and bonds increase brain opoids, and on separation, the neurotransmitters glutamate and corticotrophin releasing hormone are the neurotransmitters that are responsible for the panic response of separation distress. According to Panskepp the panic system is distinct from the fear system because the administration of opiates to new born rat pups proved effective in reducing separation distress but has no effect on fearful behaviours. This nil effect of opoid administration on fearful behaviours was demonstrated when pups were separated from mother and put in a strange environment, so the addition of strange environment provoked the fear system. The distress calls of young animals are to seek reunion with individuals who help create the feeling of a ‘secure neurochemical base’. Panskepp hypothesises the distress calls from the infant arouses distress circuits in the parents which facilitates the social bond. Harlow (1971) demonstrated that socially deprived monkeys who’s behaviour to other monkeys was sociopathic could be driven to demonstrate maternal behaviour after incessant separation distress calls from the infant.
Having an understanding and compassion of the legitimate reasons why dogs suffer from separation anxiety and not treating it as a problem behaviour , will go along way to helping the dog be happy alone.
• So if a dog is showing anxiety after separation but is easily settled when owner returns, the owner has done a fantastic job of ensuring that the dog feels safe in their company.
• If a dog is showing anxiety after separation but is not easily settled by the owners return this shows that the dog is insecurely attached to the owner.
• If the dog shows no outward signs of separation anxiety but greets the owner on return from separation, the dog has learnt to be happy alone in his environment , owners done a fantastic job.
If the dog shows no outward signs of separation anxiety and does not greet the owner on return there is no attachment. There has to be an attachment in order for separation anxiety to exist (Bowlby 1983).
So ensure that puppies are well socialised, that the dog has a secure attachment to the owner, and other members of the family, this is done with quality time spent in each others company, touching, playing feeding etc, once the dogs understands that the owner is the safe base, the dog can explore his environment, and make an attachment to his environment, this environment becomes a secure base (Scott 1958: Morgan 2010). A routine gives them knowledge that food and walks and cuddles and playtime etc will be always there and life becomes more predicable, eventually they learn to cope with changes in routines, but in order for that to happen the attachments and their safety needs have to be met first.
References
Ainsworth, M; Blehar,M. Waters,E. Wall,S. (1978, 2014) Patterns of attachment. A psychological study of the strange situation. Psychology press:USA.
Bowlby,J. (1983)Attachment And Loss Volume I Attachment 2nd edition. Pub: Basic Books; Member of the Perseus Books Group:USA.
Bowlby, J. (1980) Attachment, Loss and depression volume III. Basic Books; Member of the Perseus Books Group:USA.
Davenport, G. (1995) Introducing GCSE Psychology. HarperCollins publishers, London:UK.
Flannigan, G. Dodman. H. (2001) Risk factors and behaviors associated with separation anxiety in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association August 15, 2001, Vol. 219, No. 4, Pages 460-466.
Garcia, A. (2005) Biological bases of personal relationships: the contribution of classical ethology. Revista De Etologia vol 7. No1 pp.25 -38. Publishers: Sociedade Brasileira de Etologia: Portugal
Gácsi, M. Topál,J. Miklósi, A. Dóka, A. Csányi, V. (2001)Attachment Behavior of Adult Dogs (Canis familiaris) Living at Rescue Centers: Forming New Bonds. Journal of Comparative Psychology 2001, Vol. 115, No. 4, 423-431.
Gross,R. McIlveen, R. (2004) Psychology A new introduction. Holder and Stroughton Educational.:UK.
Harlow,H. Suomi,S. (1971) social recovery by isolation reared monkeys Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Vol. 68, No. 7, pp. 1534-1538, July 1971
Hett, S, Estep, D. (2008) The latest on Separation anxiety Integrative Veterinary Care Journal issue 2/14 Avaliable to view here: http://www.ivcjournal.com/articles/1099/
Horn,L. Huber, L. Range, F. (2013) the importance of the secure base effect for domestic dogs – Evidence from a manipulative problem solving task. Plos one May 2013 vol 8. Iss:5.
Landsberg,G. Hunthausen,W. Ackerman,L. (2013) Behaviour problems of the dog & cat. Third edition. Saunders Elsevier: China
Mariti, C. Ricci, E. Carlone, B. Moore, J. Sigheri, C. Gazzano, A. (2013) Dog attachment to man: A comparison between pet and working dogs. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research Volume 8, Issue 3, May–June 2013, Pages 135–145
Morgan,P. (2009) towards a developmental theory of place attachment. Journal of environmental psychology Vol 30(2010) pp 11-22.
Overall, K. (2013) Manual of clinical behavioural medicine for dogs and cats. Mosby and imprint of Elsevier Inc: Canada
Parthasarathy, V. Crowell-Davis, S. (2006) Relationship between attachment to owners and separation anxiety in pet dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) Journal of Veterinary Behavior, Vol 1, No 3, Nov/Dec.
Topál, J Miklósi, A Csányi, V and Doka, A. (1998) Attachment Behavior in Dogs (Canis familiarise): A New Application of Ainsworth's (1969) Strange Situation Test. Journal of comparative psychology 1998, Vol. 112, No. 3,219-229.
Topal, J. Gácsi, M, Kubinyi, E. Dóka, A. Csányi, V, Viranyi, Z. (2005)Attachment to humans: a comparative study on hand-reared wolves and differently socialized dog puppies Animal Behaviour, 2005, no 70, pp1367–1375.
Overall, K. (2013) Manual of clinical behavioural medicine for dogs and cats. Mosby and imprint of Elsevier Inc: Canada.
Panksepp,J. (2004) Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions. Oxford University Press:USA
Scott,J.P. (1958) critical periods in the development of social behavior in puppies. Psychosomatic Medicine. Jan 1958, Vol 20. is. 1
Schore, A. (2000) attachment and the regulation of the right brain. Attachment & human development Vol.2 No.1 april 2000 pp23- 47.
Schwartz, S (2003) Separation anxiety syndrome in dogs and cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association volume 22 no.11June I pp1526-1532
White, J. McBrid, E. Redhead, E. (2010) Relationship between dog owner behavior and dog attachment security in the strange situation. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research Volume 5, Issue 1 , Page 47, January 2010.
Ziv,Y, Aviezer, Gini, M. Sagi. A. Koren- Karie, N (2000)Emotional availability in the mother–infant dyad as related to the quality of infant–mother attachment relationship. Attachment & Human Development Vol. 2 No. 2 September 2000. pp149–169.
Bowlby a psychoanalyst, in the 1950’s was inspired by Konrad and applied ethological theory to human attachments. The key concepts of this theory was that;-
• innate behaviours are essentially the same in all members of a species.
• Fixed action patterns, which are the complex innate behaviours that promote species survival, for example: the attachment behaviours of infant and mother.
Sensitive periods which are specific periods where an animal is biologically ready to acquire a particular new behaviour (Bowlby 1983: Parthasarathy et al 2005: Davenport 1993 ;Gross Et al 2004; Garcia 2005).
Therefore attachment theory has a strong evolutionary base, although exploratory behaviour in young animals is necessary for them to learn about their physical and social world, wandering too far away from the mother would leave that infant vulnerable to predatory and conspecific attack (Gross et al 2004). Therefore it is of evolutionary benefit for the infant to seek the proximity of its mother when it is afraid, and behaviours such as crying; following; and clinging; facilitates gaining and maintaining proximity . Bowlby termed this behaviour as Separation Anxiety and was a normal reaction of an infant, to maintain close proximity with the attachment figure (Bowlby 1983).
Bowlby describes how the infant tries to withdraw or escape from a situation or object that they find alarming, and attempt to go towards or remain with some person or in some place that makes them feel secure. The first type of behaviour is commonly accompanied by a sense of fright or alarm; the second type of behaviour is, of course, what is termed as attachment behaviour. So long as the required proximity to the attachment-figure can be maintained, no unpleasant feeling is experienced. When, however, proximity cannot be maintained because either the figure is lost or some barrier intervenes, the consequent searching and striving are accompanied by a sense of discomfort, and the same is true when loss is threatened. In this discomfort of separation and at a threat of separation , separation anxiety is termed (Bowlby 1983).
Ainsworth (1978,2014) was further inspired and developed a way to test attachment styles through the ‘stranger situation’ and identified that the quality of attachment relationships between infants and caregivers is dependent, upon the degree to which caregivers serve as a secure base for infants. Further analysis, characterised caregivers’ ability to provide a secure base for their infants as emotional availability. Ainsworth described the emotionally available caregiver as promoting an atmosphere of ‘quiet supportiveness’ for autonomous play, thus encouraging infants’ exploration and also emphasised caregivers’ emotional availability as an important antecedent factor for infants’ attachment security. According to Ainsworth et al, the emotionally available caregiver is accessible and appropriately responsive as well as tuned in to the infant’s signals (Ainsworth et al (1978; Parthasarathy et al 2005; Davenport 1993 ;Gross Et al 2004; Garcia 2005).
Therefore Separation anxiety is not exclusive to dogs or even to veterinary medicine. It is a psychological term to describe the stress and anxiousness in an individual which is brought on by the leaving (perceived or imagined) of another individual (Davenport 1995; Gross et al 2004;Bowlby 1983: Bowlby 1980; Parthasarathy et al: Garcia 2005; Ainsworth et al 1978; Topal et al 1998; Hett 2008).
A more specific definition of separation anxiety requires ongoing attachment to the maternal or primary caregiver . In the case of a dog, separation anxiety is usually an anxiety brought on by separation from the primary caretaker. it is a normal developmental phase and it is necessary for survival. Separation anxiety disorder occurs later in development and interferes with normal activities (Landsberg et al 2013; Overall 2013).
What classifies as a "separation” varies greatly between dogs : some must have "their person" within their line of sight, other dogs are fine as long as the owner is within a comfortable distance (i.e. somewhere else in the house), and still others are fine until the owner leaves. Even finer distinctions would be dogs that are fine for a certain period of time after their owner leaves, but then start to show signs of anxiousness some time later ( Topal et al 1998; Parathasay 2006).
Just like the variance in what stresses out each individual, the signs of separation anxiety vary greatly as well, from pacing, to learnt helplessness, to barking and howling, incontinence, and destructive behaviour, just to name a few (0verall 2013; Landsburg et al 2013).
Separation anxiety in dogs was once thought to be a hyper-attachment to the owner. But studies have shown that dogs with separation anxiety and dogs without separation anxiety displayed same behaviours around owners, i.e. follow owner around the house (Mariti et al 2013; Horn et al 2013). Behaviour modification protocols for separation anxiety that recommend owners ignore their dogs and also the behaviours from the dog that are designed to promote social contact, is a harmful recommendation because it damages the human-animal bond and produces anxiety and frustration, because the dog is powerless to initiate social interaction, and the owner is prevented from doing so (Hett et al 2008; Parathasy et al 2006) In addition the hyper-attachment behaviour is more likely to be due to an insecure attachment to the owner. Ainsworth demonstrated in the ‘strange situation’ different forms of attachment. Secure attachments when the attachment figure was compassionate to the needs of the child; insecure attachments seen in children whose attachment figure was not responsive to the needs of the child, and ambivalent attachments, where children showed no attachment to the attachment figure, due to a caregiver being inconsistent in emotional and physical availability to the child. Many years ago it was once thought that children should be seen and not heard, that they need to learn to have a backbone, and responding to the childs needs immediately was deemed that the child would become too reliant on the caregivers.
Children brought up this way resulted in a child who cried more, explored less, and clung more to caregivers and were not easily reassured, than the children who had secure attachments to their caregivers (Ziv et al 2013).
The strange situation has been repeated with dogs and found the same findings secure attachments, insecure attachments as is avoidance and ambivalent attachments (Topal et al 1998; Hett et al 2008; Mariati et al 2013,Horn et al 2013).
Attachments are not just for caregivers, they can be for place, objects whatever makes mammals feel safe, usually attachments occur first with primary caregivers, which gives the individual the safety and security to explore their environment, when they become comfortable after exploration, the attachment to that place becomes another secure base. The BBC episodes Monkey planet aired on the 2nd April 2014 demonstrates a place as an attachment, the baby gibbon was too scared to leave the safety of the enclosure to go and investigate the big outside world, mum goes and reasures him, the infant comes out of the enclosure, Mum cuddles him again, and hay presto he is swinging from the trees free, the video clip below is not from that programme and does not demonstrate the cuddle but the calm reassurance from mum, giving the infant the confidence to begin his exploration of the outside world. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IT3aLsTxbnQ
Most researchers assume that the acceptance of human beings as conspecific alongside the mother-like and effective security-providing role of humans for distressed puppies are results of domestication. For 10,000 years, artificial selection in dogs favoured socialisation with humans as if they were conspecific. The genetic changes regarding a dog's capacity for conspecific recognition, might have played a key role in this process that resulted in a preference for humans. A dog's preparedness for forming a bond with humans, a bond that is rooted in the evolutionary past, would be a prerequisite for the development of attachment between a particular person (the owner) and the dog itself (Topal et al 2011).
Although the ability to form attachments is usually associated with an early sensitive period, Gasci et al (2001) demonstrated that in certain conditions a short responsive interaction with an unfamiliar human individual may result in attachment behaviour even in the case of dogs that are more than 1 year old. Gasci et al (2001) study in rescue centres show that dogs of low or restricted contact with humans may retain their ability to form new attachment relationships with humans. Probably the extreme separation from human social contact (i.e., shelter conditions) has a crucial role in this sensitisation process. In other words, dogs living in poor social conditions become more responsive to humans, which results in a remarkable readiness to form attachment relationships. It should be noted that in the case of rhesus monkeys, a similar effect has been shown because most abnormally socialised monkeys could be rehabilitated to a certain extent by appropriate exposure to conspecific groups and individuals (Harlow et al1971).
Panskepp (2004) looks at the neurocircuitry and neurochemistry of social bonds, and is assumed that the arousal of the panic system is one of the many driving forces that guide the construction of social bonds and identifies that the attachments and bonds increase brain opoids, and on separation, the neurotransmitters glutamate and corticotrophin releasing hormone are the neurotransmitters that are responsible for the panic response of separation distress. According to Panskepp the panic system is distinct from the fear system because the administration of opiates to new born rat pups proved effective in reducing separation distress but has no effect on fearful behaviours. This nil effect of opoid administration on fearful behaviours was demonstrated when pups were separated from mother and put in a strange environment, so the addition of strange environment provoked the fear system. The distress calls of young animals are to seek reunion with individuals who help create the feeling of a ‘secure neurochemical base’. Panskepp hypothesises the distress calls from the infant arouses distress circuits in the parents which facilitates the social bond. Harlow (1971) demonstrated that socially deprived monkeys who’s behaviour to other monkeys was sociopathic could be driven to demonstrate maternal behaviour after incessant separation distress calls from the infant.
Having an understanding and compassion of the legitimate reasons why dogs suffer from separation anxiety and not treating it as a problem behaviour , will go along way to helping the dog be happy alone.
• So if a dog is showing anxiety after separation but is easily settled when owner returns, the owner has done a fantastic job of ensuring that the dog feels safe in their company.
• If a dog is showing anxiety after separation but is not easily settled by the owners return this shows that the dog is insecurely attached to the owner.
• If the dog shows no outward signs of separation anxiety but greets the owner on return from separation, the dog has learnt to be happy alone in his environment , owners done a fantastic job.
If the dog shows no outward signs of separation anxiety and does not greet the owner on return there is no attachment. There has to be an attachment in order for separation anxiety to exist (Bowlby 1983).
So ensure that puppies are well socialised, that the dog has a secure attachment to the owner, and other members of the family, this is done with quality time spent in each others company, touching, playing feeding etc, once the dogs understands that the owner is the safe base, the dog can explore his environment, and make an attachment to his environment, this environment becomes a secure base (Scott 1958: Morgan 2010). A routine gives them knowledge that food and walks and cuddles and playtime etc will be always there and life becomes more predicable, eventually they learn to cope with changes in routines, but in order for that to happen the attachments and their safety needs have to be met first.
References
Ainsworth, M; Blehar,M. Waters,E. Wall,S. (1978, 2014) Patterns of attachment. A psychological study of the strange situation. Psychology press:USA.
Bowlby,J. (1983)Attachment And Loss Volume I Attachment 2nd edition. Pub: Basic Books; Member of the Perseus Books Group:USA.
Bowlby, J. (1980) Attachment, Loss and depression volume III. Basic Books; Member of the Perseus Books Group:USA.
Davenport, G. (1995) Introducing GCSE Psychology. HarperCollins publishers, London:UK.
Flannigan, G. Dodman. H. (2001) Risk factors and behaviors associated with separation anxiety in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association August 15, 2001, Vol. 219, No. 4, Pages 460-466.
Garcia, A. (2005) Biological bases of personal relationships: the contribution of classical ethology. Revista De Etologia vol 7. No1 pp.25 -38. Publishers: Sociedade Brasileira de Etologia: Portugal
Gácsi, M. Topál,J. Miklósi, A. Dóka, A. Csányi, V. (2001)Attachment Behavior of Adult Dogs (Canis familiaris) Living at Rescue Centers: Forming New Bonds. Journal of Comparative Psychology 2001, Vol. 115, No. 4, 423-431.
Gross,R. McIlveen, R. (2004) Psychology A new introduction. Holder and Stroughton Educational.:UK.
Harlow,H. Suomi,S. (1971) social recovery by isolation reared monkeys Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Vol. 68, No. 7, pp. 1534-1538, July 1971
Hett, S, Estep, D. (2008) The latest on Separation anxiety Integrative Veterinary Care Journal issue 2/14 Avaliable to view here: http://www.ivcjournal.com/articles/1099/
Horn,L. Huber, L. Range, F. (2013) the importance of the secure base effect for domestic dogs – Evidence from a manipulative problem solving task. Plos one May 2013 vol 8. Iss:5.
Landsberg,G. Hunthausen,W. Ackerman,L. (2013) Behaviour problems of the dog & cat. Third edition. Saunders Elsevier: China
Mariti, C. Ricci, E. Carlone, B. Moore, J. Sigheri, C. Gazzano, A. (2013) Dog attachment to man: A comparison between pet and working dogs. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research Volume 8, Issue 3, May–June 2013, Pages 135–145
Morgan,P. (2009) towards a developmental theory of place attachment. Journal of environmental psychology Vol 30(2010) pp 11-22.
Overall, K. (2013) Manual of clinical behavioural medicine for dogs and cats. Mosby and imprint of Elsevier Inc: Canada
Parthasarathy, V. Crowell-Davis, S. (2006) Relationship between attachment to owners and separation anxiety in pet dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) Journal of Veterinary Behavior, Vol 1, No 3, Nov/Dec.
Topál, J Miklósi, A Csányi, V and Doka, A. (1998) Attachment Behavior in Dogs (Canis familiarise): A New Application of Ainsworth's (1969) Strange Situation Test. Journal of comparative psychology 1998, Vol. 112, No. 3,219-229.
Topal, J. Gácsi, M, Kubinyi, E. Dóka, A. Csányi, V, Viranyi, Z. (2005)Attachment to humans: a comparative study on hand-reared wolves and differently socialized dog puppies Animal Behaviour, 2005, no 70, pp1367–1375.
Overall, K. (2013) Manual of clinical behavioural medicine for dogs and cats. Mosby and imprint of Elsevier Inc: Canada.
Panksepp,J. (2004) Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions. Oxford University Press:USA
Scott,J.P. (1958) critical periods in the development of social behavior in puppies. Psychosomatic Medicine. Jan 1958, Vol 20. is. 1
Schore, A. (2000) attachment and the regulation of the right brain. Attachment & human development Vol.2 No.1 april 2000 pp23- 47.
Schwartz, S (2003) Separation anxiety syndrome in dogs and cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association volume 22 no.11June I pp1526-1532
White, J. McBrid, E. Redhead, E. (2010) Relationship between dog owner behavior and dog attachment security in the strange situation. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research Volume 5, Issue 1 , Page 47, January 2010.
Ziv,Y, Aviezer, Gini, M. Sagi. A. Koren- Karie, N (2000)Emotional availability in the mother–infant dyad as related to the quality of infant–mother attachment relationship. Attachment & Human Development Vol. 2 No. 2 September 2000. pp149–169.
Friday, 19 December 2014
Hormones and Moulting
Animals living in seasonally changing environments must accurately time yearly events, like migration, moult, hibernation and reproduction in order to survive, and successfully rear their young. Animals resident in highly seasonal environments with short growing seasons are more likely to evolve seasonal phenotypes than conspecifics whose niches provide more evenly distributed food resources throughout the year (Concannon et al 2009). In some cases these events occur in direct response to seasonal changes in the external environment such as alteration in ambient temperature or day length. This adaptive reactive strategy allows the necessary physiological changes to occur rapidly. In many instances physiological adaptations need to begin well in advance of the environmental change. This means there will be for many mammals an internal seasonal adaptation, that is; they occur in the absence of changes in environmental time and are endogenously generated (Thrun et al 1995).
In most vertebrates, neuroendocrine functions are organized in regular cycles of different periodicity, which may range from minutes to months. Cycles of approximately 12 months are known as circannual rhythms, while periods of approximately 24 h are called circadian rhythms. Cycles that occur more frequently than once daily are termed ultradian cycles (Johnsonn 2009).
The seasonal adaptation is controlled by the biological pacemaker, but it can be difficult to distinguish between externally and internally regulated rhythms. However, if the animal is isolated and deprived of all external signals including the daylight variations that can provide time information, and the physiological rhythm then shows a period deviating from the 24 hour cycle it is possible to conclude that the rhythm is internally controlled (Johnsonn 2009; Mustonen2003 ).
Seasonal changes in photoperiod adjust the period duration of circannual cycles, which is typically 9–10 months under constant conditions, to 365 days. Thus, the expression of circannual rhythms involves an interaction between an endogenously generated signal and environmental cues (Duncan 2007 ).
Hormones serve as a mechanism for mediating seasonal changes in physiology. Two photo-dependent hormones are Prolactin and Melatonin. Prolactin is synthesised in the anterior pituitary gland but also in the central nervous system, the immune system, the uterus and its associated tissues of conception, and even the mammary gland itself. Moreover, its biological actions are not limited solely to reproduction because it has been shown to control a variety of behaviours and it plays a role in homeostasis. Prolactin-releasing stimuli not only include the nursing stimulus, but light, audition, olfaction, and stress can serve a stimulatory role (Freeman et al 2000). Melatonin is primarily synthesised in the pineal gland. Prolactin and melatonin have a synergistic effect, the melatonin secretion pattern is an inverse function of day length, and circulating melatonin levels correlate inversely with Prolactin levels. Melatonin secretion occurs during the hours of darkness, so the amount of melatonin biosynthesis is directly related to the length of the daily dark period. The quantity continues to increase in autumn until winter solstice (Mandel 2012).
Most studies on circannual rhythms in mammals is done on humans or wild animals, there are very few of the domestic dog, however studies that have been done, have shown a circannual rhythm which shows seasonal fluctuations in line with wild and human studies ( Kreeger et al 1992; Corrida et a 2003; Gobella et al 2002).
Mink exhibit a seasonal fur growth cycle regulated by photoperiod. As the length of the photoperiod decreases; an increase in melatonin concentration and a decrease in Prolactin results. Which initiate growth of the winter pelage, which begins in September in northern latitudes. In spring, the opposite occurs: the length of the photoperiod increases, resulting in an increase in Prolactin concentration and a decrease in melatonin, initiating the spring moult (Valtonen 1995). Mink treated with implants of melatonin in June, when natural melatonin production is low; are exposed to an artificial melatonin they have suppressed Prolactin production and exhibit an early onset of autumn moult and produce prime winter pelage 6 to 8 weeks earlier than normal (Rose 1984).
Belyaev (1979) demonstrated a destabilizing effect on the loss of strict circannual rhythm through the domestication process. Food generalists like the domesticated pet dog that exploit diverse diets, and generally are kept sheltered from the weather tend to be less subject to seasonal pressures than specialists reliant on a few seasonally variable foods (Concannon et al 2009. But despite that domestic dogs do moult in autumn and develop a winter a coat, and they have been shown to have a circannual rhythm. It seems likely that the increasing endogenous melatonin secretion after the summer solstice triggers the autumn moult of the domestic dog .
Therefore the start of the winter coat in domestic dogs will begin after the summer solstice predicting the oncoming winter, due to the decrease of Prolactin as a result of increased melatonin secretion.
References
Belyaev, D. 1979. Destablising selection as a factor in domestication Journal of Heredity (1979) Vol 70 No 301 pp 301-308.
Concannon, P Castracane v. Temple, M Montanez, A. (2009) Endocrine control of ovarian function in dogs and other carnivores Animal Reproduction., 178 v.6, n.1, p.172-193, Jan./Mar. 2009
Corrada, Y. Castex,G. Sosa,Y. Gobello, C. (2003) Secretory Patterns of Prolactin in Dogs: Circannual and Ultradian Rhythms Reproduction in Domestic Animals Volume 38, Issue 3, pages 219–223, June 2003
Duncan, M (2007) Circannual prolactin rhythms: calendar-like timer revealed in the pituitary gland TRENDS In Endocrinology and Metabolism Vol.18 No.7 August
2007.
Freeman,M. Kanyicska , B. Lerant, A. Nagy, G. (2002) Prolactin: Structure, Function, and Regulation of Secretion Physiological Reviews Published 10 January 2000 Vol. 80no. 1523-1631 Avaliable from: http://physrev.physiology.org/content/80/4/1523>
Gobello,C. Corrada,Y Castex,G . de la Sota, R and Goya R (2002) Secretory patterns of growth hormone in dogs: circannual, circadian, and ultradian rhythms Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research. Apr 2002; 66(2): 108–111.
Johnsonn A. 2008. Light, circadian and circannual rhythms in Solar Radiation and Human Health .Espen Bjertness, editor. Oslo: The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, 2008. Available from: http://www.dnva.no/geomed/solarpdf/Nr_5_Johnsson.pdf
Kreeger,T. Seal,U. (1992) Circannual prolactin rhythm in intact dogs housed outdoors. Chroniobiologia (1992), Vol 19(1-2): pp1-8.
Mandel, F(2012). Textbook of Animal Behaviour Second edition PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi.
Mustonen, A. (2003). Seasonality, photoperiod and nutritional status in the control of endocrinological weight- regulation. – University of Joensuu, PhD Dissertations in Biology, n:o 18. ISSN 1457-2486
Thrun,L. Moenter,S. O’callaghan,D. Woodfill,C. Karcsh,F. (1995) Circannaula Alteranions in the circadian rhythm of melatonin secretion. Journal of biological rhythms Vol 10 March 1995 pp42-54.
Valtonen M, Vakkuri P, Blomsted L: (1995) Autumnal timing of photoperiodic manipulation via melatonin to winter pelage development in mink. Journal of Animal Science 61:589, 1995.
In most vertebrates, neuroendocrine functions are organized in regular cycles of different periodicity, which may range from minutes to months. Cycles of approximately 12 months are known as circannual rhythms, while periods of approximately 24 h are called circadian rhythms. Cycles that occur more frequently than once daily are termed ultradian cycles (Johnsonn 2009).
The seasonal adaptation is controlled by the biological pacemaker, but it can be difficult to distinguish between externally and internally regulated rhythms. However, if the animal is isolated and deprived of all external signals including the daylight variations that can provide time information, and the physiological rhythm then shows a period deviating from the 24 hour cycle it is possible to conclude that the rhythm is internally controlled (Johnsonn 2009; Mustonen2003 ).
Seasonal changes in photoperiod adjust the period duration of circannual cycles, which is typically 9–10 months under constant conditions, to 365 days. Thus, the expression of circannual rhythms involves an interaction between an endogenously generated signal and environmental cues (Duncan 2007 ).
Hormones serve as a mechanism for mediating seasonal changes in physiology. Two photo-dependent hormones are Prolactin and Melatonin. Prolactin is synthesised in the anterior pituitary gland but also in the central nervous system, the immune system, the uterus and its associated tissues of conception, and even the mammary gland itself. Moreover, its biological actions are not limited solely to reproduction because it has been shown to control a variety of behaviours and it plays a role in homeostasis. Prolactin-releasing stimuli not only include the nursing stimulus, but light, audition, olfaction, and stress can serve a stimulatory role (Freeman et al 2000). Melatonin is primarily synthesised in the pineal gland. Prolactin and melatonin have a synergistic effect, the melatonin secretion pattern is an inverse function of day length, and circulating melatonin levels correlate inversely with Prolactin levels. Melatonin secretion occurs during the hours of darkness, so the amount of melatonin biosynthesis is directly related to the length of the daily dark period. The quantity continues to increase in autumn until winter solstice (Mandel 2012).
Most studies on circannual rhythms in mammals is done on humans or wild animals, there are very few of the domestic dog, however studies that have been done, have shown a circannual rhythm which shows seasonal fluctuations in line with wild and human studies ( Kreeger et al 1992; Corrida et a 2003; Gobella et al 2002).
Mink exhibit a seasonal fur growth cycle regulated by photoperiod. As the length of the photoperiod decreases; an increase in melatonin concentration and a decrease in Prolactin results. Which initiate growth of the winter pelage, which begins in September in northern latitudes. In spring, the opposite occurs: the length of the photoperiod increases, resulting in an increase in Prolactin concentration and a decrease in melatonin, initiating the spring moult (Valtonen 1995). Mink treated with implants of melatonin in June, when natural melatonin production is low; are exposed to an artificial melatonin they have suppressed Prolactin production and exhibit an early onset of autumn moult and produce prime winter pelage 6 to 8 weeks earlier than normal (Rose 1984).
Belyaev (1979) demonstrated a destabilizing effect on the loss of strict circannual rhythm through the domestication process. Food generalists like the domesticated pet dog that exploit diverse diets, and generally are kept sheltered from the weather tend to be less subject to seasonal pressures than specialists reliant on a few seasonally variable foods (Concannon et al 2009. But despite that domestic dogs do moult in autumn and develop a winter a coat, and they have been shown to have a circannual rhythm. It seems likely that the increasing endogenous melatonin secretion after the summer solstice triggers the autumn moult of the domestic dog .
Therefore the start of the winter coat in domestic dogs will begin after the summer solstice predicting the oncoming winter, due to the decrease of Prolactin as a result of increased melatonin secretion.
References
Belyaev, D. 1979. Destablising selection as a factor in domestication Journal of Heredity (1979) Vol 70 No 301 pp 301-308.
Concannon, P Castracane v. Temple, M Montanez, A. (2009) Endocrine control of ovarian function in dogs and other carnivores Animal Reproduction., 178 v.6, n.1, p.172-193, Jan./Mar. 2009
Corrada, Y. Castex,G. Sosa,Y. Gobello, C. (2003) Secretory Patterns of Prolactin in Dogs: Circannual and Ultradian Rhythms Reproduction in Domestic Animals Volume 38, Issue 3, pages 219–223, June 2003
Duncan, M (2007) Circannual prolactin rhythms: calendar-like timer revealed in the pituitary gland TRENDS In Endocrinology and Metabolism Vol.18 No.7 August
2007.
Freeman,M. Kanyicska , B. Lerant, A. Nagy, G. (2002) Prolactin: Structure, Function, and Regulation of Secretion Physiological Reviews Published 10 January 2000 Vol. 80no. 1523-1631 Avaliable from: http://physrev.physiology.org/content/80/4/1523>
Gobello,C. Corrada,Y Castex,G . de la Sota, R and Goya R (2002) Secretory patterns of growth hormone in dogs: circannual, circadian, and ultradian rhythms Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research. Apr 2002; 66(2): 108–111.
Johnsonn A. 2008. Light, circadian and circannual rhythms in Solar Radiation and Human Health .Espen Bjertness, editor. Oslo: The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, 2008. Available from: http://www.dnva.no/geomed/solarpdf/Nr_5_Johnsson.pdf
Kreeger,T. Seal,U. (1992) Circannual prolactin rhythm in intact dogs housed outdoors. Chroniobiologia (1992), Vol 19(1-2): pp1-8.
Mandel, F(2012). Textbook of Animal Behaviour Second edition PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi.
Mustonen, A. (2003). Seasonality, photoperiod and nutritional status in the control of endocrinological weight- regulation. – University of Joensuu, PhD Dissertations in Biology, n:o 18. ISSN 1457-2486
Thrun,L. Moenter,S. O’callaghan,D. Woodfill,C. Karcsh,F. (1995) Circannaula Alteranions in the circadian rhythm of melatonin secretion. Journal of biological rhythms Vol 10 March 1995 pp42-54.
Valtonen M, Vakkuri P, Blomsted L: (1995) Autumnal timing of photoperiodic manipulation via melatonin to winter pelage development in mink. Journal of Animal Science 61:589, 1995.
Saturday, 12 May 2012
Your needs; the dogs needs; a simple formula to alter the behaviour of your dog, and your relationship with the dog.
Diagram:
an adaptation of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1943)
According
to Maslow (1943) all human beings have a hierarchy of needs, it is
displayed as a pyramid and before an individual can go up in the pyramid each
need needs to be fulfilled, The first part is physiological needs this is the
need of survival: the need to breathe;
have food and water; able to excrete; sleep; and
the need to procreate. After all these needs are met individuals go up in the triangle to the next level; which
is safety needs, in order to feel safe there is a need for good health, all
resources readily available to sustain physiological needs like: warmth; a
place to live; stability, cleanliness; safety within the family; and a role
within the family. Once these needs are
met and sustained ‘beings’ progress up another level to love and belonging : love from the family;
relationships; and a sense of belonging
and sexual intimacy; once these needs are met further progress to the next
level esteem : here individuals seek self-esteem; confidence; achievement and
respect, fun and play. After the esteem
needs have been met you progress to self-actualization
which means fulfillment, where you reach
for your actual potential this is a constant process, and provided that all the
needs in the lower levels are being met you constantly strive to develop.
The
dog has the same needs as you, in the wild a dog will seek his needs himself
and a domestic dog will seek to satisfy his own needs, so in order to prevent
the dog seeking satisfaction that might not fit in within the
family home it best to provide those needs. Just providing those needs can prevent bad
behaviour developing or even eliminate a
behaviour that is undesirable. On the whole a bad behaviour develops not
because it is wrong in the dogs mind but that need has not been provided by the
owner.
If
you provide a dog with food, water, a place to excrete, and allow them to sleep, and not get to hot
or cold the dog will survive. So having
given the dog a chance to survive you need to provide the dog with his safety
needs, in order for the dog to feel safe he needs to know that all of his
physiological needs will always be fulfilled, your need to ensure he is in good
health, a safe place to live and sleep, warmth, stability, his role within the
family is safe.
It
does not take much for a dogs feeling of safety to be undone. A move of house,
a new member of the family, a change in
routine, a new dog or cat, even a new dog moving in to house up the road can
threaten the dogs feeling of safety.
Once
the dogs physiological and safety needs are met they progress to love and
belonging, all dogs have a need to belong whether it is within a pack of dogs
or within the family home, a building of relationships is very important for
good behaviour. It is at this point
that If you have an entire dog or bitch
and their need for procreation is not fulfilled the dog is going to have
difficulties progressing to the next level of need, its not impossible but
there might be a certain amount of
frustration and distraction.
So
now you have a dog that is surviving, feels safe, and has a sense of belonging,
the dog then needs his esteem addressed. Ensuring that the first three levels
are sustained will give the dog confidence, however life is unpredictable and
there confidence can be quickly dented.
This can be overcome by ensuring that the dog makes achievements, this is when training
comes into its own. Each new skill a dog
learns boosts his self esteem, the more he learns the more tools he has at his
disposal to deal with the unpredictably of life and ensuring that his confidence
carries on developing. A dog is a dog
and needs to do dog things for his own esteem;
to smell the air, feel freedom,
run, play, and chase. At this level bad
behaviour is replaced by good behaviour.
Now
the dog that was just surviving, is now safe, feels that he belongs, he is confident
with a high self esteem, he is now ready to embark on the journey of fulfillment whereby he can maximize his potential, with the support of his
owner. The journey is only just beginning.
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